THE DIVISION OF EUROPE

How events in Europe 1945-49 helped to shape world history in the 2nd half of the 20th Century

Meeting of US + USSR troops in Germany, June 1945

• Marked end of war in Europe
• Scene of peace and goodwill bodes well for future
• Yet soon after Europe + most of the world were plunged into almost 50 years of non-violent conflict (mainly) - the Cold War
• Why?

1945 - A DIFFERENT WORLD

• underlying significance
• Europe occupied by armies from outside of Europe, US + USSR
• Europe had lost its world pre-eminence
• Contrast between US + USSR forces and their war-time experiences
• Foundation for mutual misunderstanding + suspicion

SIGNS OF THINGS TO COME

• 1917
• 1- Russian revolution, withdrawal from WW1
• 2 - Entry of US into War leads to Allied victory
• Lenin - "Ultimately one or the other must conquer"

SIGNS OF THINGS TO COME

• Between the wars
• USSR, opposition then grudging acceptance by other powers (US recognition in 1934) - withdrawal, "Socialism in 1 country", 1939 pact with Hitler then into WW2 in 1941.
• US, isolationism in reaction to WW1, economic boom then Crash, world crisis of capitalism, entry into WW2 after attack by Japan at Pearl Harbour.

WW2 - A NEW KIND OF WAR

• Contrast with WW1
• 1 - more mobile, very little trench warfare
• 2 - war of machines + technology and their production
• 3 - truly a world war, Asia + Africa
• 4 - direct affects on civilian populations especially through bombing + Allied advance through Europe
• 5 - Big Power line-up, Axis v Allies

THE COURSE OF WW2 - a war of 2 halves

• 1 - 1939-42 German + Japanese dominance, well prepared, only Britain undefeated in Europe
• 2 - 1942/3 the tide turns, US enters, German defeat in N Africa and setback in Russia at Stalingrad
• 3 - D-Day landings opens 2nd front in Europe, Germans caught in US/USSR pincer

THE BIG 3, AN UNEASY ALLIANCE

• US, USSR + Britain
• 3 Meetings of the 3 leaders, Roosevelt, Stalin (Uncle Joe) and Churchill
• The Agenda
• 1- defeat Hitler
• 2 - post-war Europe, spheres of interest + political complexion
• 3 - what to do about defeated Germany
• 4 - international body to keep peace, UN

 UNDERLYING SUSPICIONS

• Basic antithesis between communism and capitalism
• Hitler’s strategy drove US +USSR together
• USSR - 1939 pact with Hitler, chance of early peace, size of Red Army, designs in E Europe
• Allies - war strategy, delay in opening 2nd front until D Day 1944 to weaken USSR, US economic influence
• Both sides watchful of each other in extension of power + influence

DIFFERENT REASONS FOR FIGHTING THE WAR

• Allies bound together by common threat to their political systems, democracy + communism, then after1943 by drive for victory.
• US + Britain - Poland, to prevent Europe being under power of 1 state, democracy + freedom( political + economic)
• USSR - removal of Germans from USSR, future security of USSR + preservation of only Communist state

1944 - TEHERAN

• Meeting 1, Teheran, Nov 1944 good personal rapport, focus on war effort + vague agreements on Europe + UN but Stalin had US + British rooms bugged!
• October 1944, Churchill + Stalin in Moscow, "division of Europe" on a piece of paper (Churchill quote)

1945 YALTA

• Meeting 2, Yalta, Feb 1945, war nearly won attention on Europe and cracks appear,
• Declaration On Liberated Europe (quote) but different interpretations, Stalin felt that US would take little interest in Europe
• Division of Germany + Berlin into 4 zones admin by US, USSR, Britain and France, but disagreement over reparations + long term future
• Concern over Poland + events in Warsaw
• Need for concessions, USSR help v Japan

JULY 1945 POTSDAM

• Germany defeated, but not Japan
• new personalities, Truman + Atlee, Stalin remained most experienced of leaders
• US had just tested 1st atom bomb
• Truman, "a little horse trading" to speed things up
• Agreement on basic division of Europe, but nature of regimes in E Europe still unclear (façade of self-determination)
• Stalin believed that he had been given a free hand.

EVENTS OF AUGUST 1945

• 6th - 1st atom bomb on Hiroshima
• 8th - USSR declared war on Japan
• 9th - 2nd atom bomb on Nagasaki
• 14th - Japanese surrender, end of WW2
• Nuclear weapons had proved horrific but effective - USSR resentment at not being party to their development - US unwilling to share secrets - sign of mutual suspicions + start of nuclear arms race - Stalin orders USSR scientists to match US

THE STATE OF EUROPE 1945

• After 5-6 years of war/occupation there were many different consequences
• political
• economic
• demographic
• social

DEMOGRAPHIC

• 55 million dead, 35 million, 3 million reported missing - USSR bore a very heavy toll
• Millions of refugees, homes destroyed
• Displaced peoples + ethnic minorities, a - during the war, millions resettled by both the Nazis + Stalin
• b - after the war, expulsions + flight left 30 million without homes - Poles + E Germans
• c - political refugees mainly from E to W

SOCIAL

• Massive social hardship + deprivation
• E Europe - discrediting of the ruling/upper classes for Nazi collusion helped pave way for revolution
• Legacy of collaboration and resistance caused much resentment + social division
• Many civilians had become used to civil disobedience
• General change in attitude away from liberal/capitalist values to desire for more state control to benefit everyone

ECONOMIC

• Economies in disarray, production, agriculture and trade disrupted
• Massive destruction of industry + infra- structure - everything geared to war effort
• US economy in full flow (producing a plane every 5 minutes) set to expand + extend influence

POLITICAL

• Europe divided according to war-time agreements - Red Army occupying E Europe but not Greece + Italy
• Europe - political vacuum, especially in C Europe, return of govts in exile to form provisional governments
• Agreement to hold free elections across Europe
• Asia - image of European superiority broken by Japanese - US in favour of de-colonisation (friction with Britain)

1ST AID UNRRA

• UNITED NATIONS RELIEF AND REHABILITATION AGENCY - 1943
• Biggest first aid operation in history, by end of 1947 22m tons of supplies world wide from China to Poland
• Apolitical - given to non-Comm + Comm states alike
• Work continued by IRO, WHO + UNICEF
• US Marshall Plan followed

THE MARSHALL PLAN

• General Marshall, US Sec of State visited Europe in 1947
• Believed that W Europe in danger, economic conditions, especially with severe winters of 47+8 could lead to spread of communism
• Answer - massive financial aid programme to regenerate economies
• Problem - to convince Congress to agree to expense, hype up communist threat
• Motives - genuine humanitarian concern, killing communism by kindness, strings attached meant markets for US firms
• USSR attitude- though open to any country, Stalin saw this as US attempt to gain eco control over Europe + so of USSR
• E European countries forbidden to respond
• Czechoslovakia tried but was brought into line, last country to succumb to Moscow
• Stalin founds Cominform to strengthen his control and bring uniformity to E Europe

RECONSTRUCTION

• France, an extreme example, 2 main shortages were coal + transport, factories could not work
• Spectacular success, by summer 1945, coal production 75%, agriculture 66%, industry + ports 50%, railways almost 100%
• But problems with currency + inflation

POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS

• Post-war elections saw big swing to left, strong showing by CP - Churchill’s defeat in Britain by Labour
• Reasons - left in general associated with resistance - recognition of need for central control to rebuild
• War time foundations - 1942 "Report On Social Insurance And Allied Services"- 1944 - French Resistance Charter
• acceptance of socialist values + demise of old Right 19th C liberal/capitalist values
• Results - coalition governments embracing wide platform of support for national unity
• trend of nationalisation + planned economy
• Introduction of Welfare State, state’s responsibility to provide protection of the family + individual from extremes of poverty + basic entitlements, health, education, pensions, social security
• Main difference between E +W was NOT capitalism + communism BUT state-control organised by a democratic govt + whole economy controlled by single party state
• 1947 - Change of tactics by CP from involvement in Popular Front govts + TU to attempt to undermine + discredit them
• Final effort by CP to seize power in W Europe before social discontent was offset by Marshall Plan
• France - CP deputies expelled, CGT launch wave of industrial action but new non-CP unions dissipate campaign
• Italy - massive CP campaign in election subverted by huge US/CIA backing
• Eastern Europe - Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia were in sphere of USSR
• a - agreed by Allies
• b - physical presence of Red Army
• These were "young" countries without democratic traditions.
• Initially, democratic elections held resulting in coalition governments - popular fronts of national unity
• "Declaration On Liberated Europe" - this was intended to be temporary phase
• CPs did very well- USSR presence + Communist role in resistance movements, but not in total control.
• Between 1945-8 CPs did take full control and illusion of democracy ended (Finland)
• USSR backing - importing of native CP members from Moscow - strategic planning, control of police + army - "dealing with" opponents, coup in Czechoslovakia

WHY DID STALIN CARRY THROUGH THIS POLICY?

• Different views
• USSR - 3 invasions since 1914 - 27 million lives in WW2 - devastation by German army - fear of new Germany - need for physical buffer zone
• awareness of own weakness + US strength - fear of US economic dominance
• Stalin + USSR in high esteem after war, some advice to play on this by treading softly, but Stalin’s personality suspicious, insular + afraid of w influences – POWs
• The West - USSR expansion - spread of Communism, - traditional Russian foreign policy was expansionist - Kennan’s "long telegram" from Moscow, tradition + communist ideology threatened US/Western way of life
• Churchill’s US speech, "an Iron Curtain has descended across Europe"

GERMANY - A FOCUS FOR DIFFERENCES

• All parties agreed on basic idea that Germany should never be threat again.
• Agreement that Allies (USSR, US, UK + F) would each be responsible for a zone of Germany, ACC in overall command
• Berlin also divided into 4 zones even though it was deep in USSR zone
• US, UK + France joined their zones so soon there were effectively 2 parts of Germany + Berlin

EAST + WEST ATTITUDES

• USSR - feared a strong Germany - wanted to control at least part of Germany - wanted to exact heavy reparations - element of revenge with German population
• The West - humanitarian attitude, Roosevelt "freedom from want and fear" - re-establish democracy - self-sufficient economy

GERMANY - CRACKS WIDEN

• Agreements in principle broke down in practice - swap of machinery for food
• After early difficulties with France, US, UK + France join zones - "Bizonia"
• In W zone the W Allies encouraged the economy (partly to save their costs)
• In E zone USSR continued take economic toll while imposing political weight
• By 1948 peace treaty with Germany still far off, W Allies planned new currency in W zone.

BERLIN BLOCKADE 1948-9

• USSR saw currency issue as major provocation
• June 24th all overland links to W Berlin were cut - WB was stranded 100m into EG
• Allies had 3 choices - surrender, military force or surmount the blockade
• Option 3 - Berlin airlift began, daily flights carrying fuel + supplies to WB, rose from 500 tons a day to 6-8000 in May 49

LEGACY OF 1st BERLIN CRISIS

• Confirmed mistrust + hostility of both sides
• Application of 1947 Truman Doctrine to resist communist advances, WG + WB became symbolic of W’s intentions
• US stepped up defence commitment in Europe + accepted leadership of the West in facing Communism
• NATO signed by 12 countries in April 49, "neither peace or security for US if Europe is in danger"
• Creation of 2 German states nearer

EUROPE IN 1949

• By 1949 the division of Europe was set
• the Iron Curtain was in place across Europe (except in Berlin)
• The USSR had consolidated its control over E Europe which was a bloc of single party CP states + determined to maintain it
• The US was in alliance with the states of W Europe to prevent the expansion of USSR influence
• Europe had passed from WW2 to Cold War

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